Astrology is a group of systems System is a set of interacting or interdependent entities forming an integrated whole, traditions A tradition is any established routine. Usually, routines established in order to preserve a wide range of culturally significant ideas. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditio [meaning: giving up , surrendering, instructing, relating] Today, the word tradition is commonly used to designate specific practices and the various methods used, and beliefs Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true which hold that the relative positions of celestial bodies Astronomical objects are significant naturally occurring physical entities, associations or structures which current science has demonstrated to exist in outer space. The term astronomical object is sometimes used interchangeably with astronomical body. Typically an astronomical body refers to a single, cohesive structure that is bound together by and related details can provide information about personality The concept of personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might, human affairs and other "earthly" matters. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer An astrologer practices one or more forms of astrology. Typically an astrologer draws a horoscope for the time of an event, such as a person's birth, and interprets celestial points and their placements at the time of the event to better understand someone, determine the auspiciousness of an undertaking's beginning, etc. However, the methods. Astrologers believe that the movements and positions of celestial bodies either directly influence life on Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as the World, the Blue Planet,[note 6] or by its Latin name, Terra.[note 7] or correspond to events experienced on a human scale.^[1] Modern astrologers define astrology as a symbolic A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for "STOP". On maps, crossed sabres may indicate a battlefield. Numerals are symbols for numbers . All language consists of symbols language,^[2][3][4] an art Art is the process or product of deliberately arranging elements in a way to affect the senses or emotions. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics form, or a form of divination Divination is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of a standardized process or ritual. Diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency. Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize.^[5][6] Despite differences in definitions, a common assumption of astrologers is that celestial placements can aid in the interpretation of past and present events, and in the prediction A prediction or forecast is a statement about the way things will happen in the future, often but not always based on experience or knowledge. While there is much overlap between prediction and forecast, a prediction may be a statement that some outcome is expected, while a forecast may cover a range of possible outcomes of the future.

Astrology is generally considered a pseudoscience Pseudoscience is a methodology, belief, or practice that is claimed to be scientific, or that is made to appear to be scientific, but which does not adhere to an appropriate scientific methodology, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, or otherwise lacks scientific status. The term comes from the Greek prefix pseudo- and science (from Latin or superstition Superstition is a credulous belief or notion, not based on reason or knowledge. The word is often used pejoratively to refer to folk beliefs deemed irrational. This leads to some superstitions being called "old wives' tales". It is also commonly applied to beliefs and practices surrounding luck, prophecy and spiritual beings, by the scientific community The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists, its relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into "sub-communities" each working on a particular field within science. Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method. Peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences,, which cites a lack of statistically significant In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. The phrase test of significance was coined by Ronald Fisher astrological predictions, while psychology Psychology is the scientific study of human or other animal mental functions and behaviors. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist. Psychologists are classified as social or behavioral scientists. Psychological research can be considered either basic or applied. Psychologists attempt to understand the explains much of the continued faith in astrology as a matter of cognitive biases A cognitive bias is the human tendency to draw incorrect conclusions in certain circumstances based on cognitive factors rather than evidence. Such biases are thought to be a form of "cognitive shortcut", often based upon rules of thumb, and include errors in statistical judgment, social attribution, and memory. Cognitive biases are a.^{[7][8][9][10]} In 2006 the U.S. ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language National Science Board The National Science Board of the United States is composed of 25 members appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate, representing the broad U.S. science and engineering community. The Board establishes the policies of the NSF within the framework of applicable national policies set forth by the President and the Congress published a statement which said it considers belief in ten survey items, astrology among them, to be "pseudoscientific".^[11]

Numerous traditions and applications employing astrological concepts have arisen since its earliest recorded beginnings in the 3rd millennium BC It represents a period of time in which imperialism, or the desire to conquer, grew to prominence, in the city states of the Middle East, but also throughout Eurasia, with Indo-European expansion to Anatolia, Europe and Central Asia. The civilization of Ancient Egypt rises to a peak with the Old Kingdom. World population is estimated to have. Astrology has played an important role in the shaping of culture, early astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe, the Vedas The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,^[12] and various disciplines throughout history. In fact, astrology and astronomy Astrology and astronomy were archaically one and the same discipline , and were only gradually recognized as separate in western 17th century philosophy (the "Age of Reason") were often indistinguishable before the modern era Modern history, or the modern era, describes the historical timeline after the Middle Ages. Modern history can be further broken down into the early modern period and the late modern period. Contemporary history describes the span of historic events that are immediately relevant to the present time, with the desire for predictive and divinatory knowledge one of the motivating factors for astronomical observation. Astronomy began to diverge from astrology after a period of gradual separation from the Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the up until the 18th century. Eventually, astronomy distinguished itself as the empirical In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that knowledge arises from evidence gathered via sense experience. Empiricism is one of several competing views that predominate in the study of human knowledge, known as epistemology. Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena, without regard to the terrestrial implications of astrology.

The word "astrology" comes from the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many term astrologia ("astronomy"),^[13] which in turn derives from the Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (& noun αστρολογία: ἄστρον, astron ("constellation" or "star") and -λογία, -logia ("the study of").

Core beliefs

The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in parts of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim, "as above, so below". Tycho Brahe used a similar phrase to summarize his studies in astrology: suspiciendo despicio, "by looking up I see downward".^[14] Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was once generally held in most traditions of astrology around the world, in the West there has historically been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology.

Although the connection between celestial mechanics and terrestrial dynamics was explored first by Isaac Newton with his development of a universal theory of gravitation, claims that the gravitational effects of the celestial bodies are what accounts for astrological generalizations are not substantiated by scientific research.

Most astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real or construed celestial bodies and on the construction of implied or calculated celestial patterns as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the astrological planets, the stars, the lunar nodes, Arabic parts and hypothetical planets. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the tropical or sidereal zodiac of twelve signs on one hand, and by the local horizon (ascendant-descendant axis) and midheaven-imum coeli axis on the other. This latter (local) frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses. Furthermore, the astrological aspects are used to determine the geometric/angular relationship(s) between the various celestial bodies and angles in the horoscope.

Predictive astrology, in the Western tradition, employs two main methods: astrological transits and astrological progressions. In astrological transits the ongoing movements of the planets are interpreted for their significance as they transit through space and the horoscope. In astrological progressions the horoscope is progressed forward in time according to set methods. In Vedic astrology, the focus is on planetary periods to infer the trend, while transits are used to time significant events. Most Western astrologers no longer try to forecast actual events, but focus instead on general trends and developments. By comparison, Vedic astrologers predict both trends and events. Skeptics respond that this practice of western astrologers allows them to avoid making verifiable predictions, and gives them the ability to attach significance to arbitrary and unrelated events, in a way that suits their purpose.^[15]

In the past, astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements. Modern astrologers use data provided by astronomers which are transformed to a set of astrological tables called ephemerides,^[16] showing the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.

Traditions

There are many traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines between cultures. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold different doctrines, though they too share some features due to drawing on similar astronomical sources.

Current traditions

The main traditions used by modern astrologers are Hindu Astrology (Jyotiṣa), Western astrology, and Chinese astrology.

Vedic and Western astrology share a common ancestry as horoscopic systems of astrology, in that both traditions focus on the casting of an astrological chart or horoscope, a representation of celestial entities, for an event based on the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the moment of the event. However, Vedic astrology uses the sidereal or fixed or constellational zodiac, linking the signs of the zodiac to their original constellations, while Western astrology uses the tropical or seasonal zodiac. Because of the precession of the equinoxes whose cycle is ~25,686 years long, during which the extensions of the polar axes describe circles, the twelve zodiacal signs in Western astrology no longer correspond to the same part of the sky as their original constellations, due to centuries of change. In effect, in Western astrology the link between sign and constellation was broken in approximately 222 AD, whereas in Vedic astrology the constellations remain of paramount importance. Other differences between the two traditions include the use of 27 (or 28) nakshatras or lunar mansions, each 13⅓ degrees wide, which have been used in India since Vedic times, and the systems of planetary periods known as dashas.

In Chinese astrology, a quite different tradition has evolved. By contrast to Western and Indian astrology, the twelve signs of the zodiac do not divide the sky, but rather the celestial equator. The Chinese evolved a system in which each sign corresponds to one of twelve "double-hours" that govern the day, and to one of the twelve months. Each sign of the zodiac governs a different year, and combines with a system based on the five elements of Chinese cosmology to give a 60 (12 × 5) year cycle. The term Chinese astrology is used here for convenience, but it must be noted that versions of the same tradition exist in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and other Asian countries. It appears that this is a remnant of a more ancient system of Jupiterian astrology, an astrological system primarily based on the motion of Jupiter, which orbits the Sun every 11.89 years.

Western astrology has been the result of the knowledge of the earlier Indian/Vedic and Egyptian schools (each developed in their own right, and neither shows traces of the later Babylonian influences) being diluted and simplified in passing first through Persia/Babylon, and then through Greece, and later Europe. In modern times, these traditions have come into closer contact with each other, notably with Indian and Chinese astrology having spread in more direct form to the West, while awareness of the modern notions of Western astrology is still fairly limited in Asia, and is not considered useful. Astrology in the Western world has diversified among some in modern times. New movements have appeared that have jettisoned much of more recent traditional astrology to concentrate on different approaches, such as a greater emphasis on midpoints, or a more psychological approach. Some recent Western developments include modern tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology, including constellational and star or point-based astrology (including aspects to the fundamental planetary dynamics, such as perihelions and aphelions, and nodal points resulting from the inclinations of the planets' revolutionary planes to the Earth's ecliptic plane); heliocentric astrology, cosmobiology; psychological astrology; sun sign astrology; the Hamburg School of Astrology; and Uranian astrology, a subset of the Hamburg School.

Historical traditions

Throughout its long history, astrology has come to prominence in many regions and undergone developments and change. There are many astrological traditions that are historically important, but which have largely fallen out of use. Astrologers still retain an interest in them and regard them as an important resource. Historically significant traditions of astrology include Arab and Persian astrology (Medieval, Near East); Babylonian astrology (Ancient, Near East); Egyptian astrology; Hellenistic astrology (Classical antiquity); Hindu astrology and Mayan astrology.

Esoteric traditions

Many mystic or esoteric traditions have links to astrology. In some cases, such as Kabbalah, this involves participants incorporating elements of astrology into their own traditions. In other cases, many astrologers have incorporated other traditions into their own practice of astrology, and astrology has been incorporated into those traditions. Esoteric traditions include, but are not limited to, alchemy, chiromancy, Kabbalistic astrology, medical astrology, numerology, Rosicrucian or "Rose Cross", and Tarot divination.

Historically, alchemy in the Western World was particularly allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for occult or hidden knowledge.^[17] Astrology has used the concept of the four classical elements of alchemy from antiquity up until the present day. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and "ruled" a certain metal.^[18]

Horoscopic astrology

Horoscopic astrology is a system that some claim to have developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt around the late 2nd or early 1st century BC.^[19] However, horoscopic astrology has been practiced in India since ancient times, and Vedic astrology is the oldest surviving form of horoscopic astrology in the world.^[12] The tradition deals with two-dimensional diagrams of the heavens, or horoscopes, created for specific moments in time. The diagram is then used to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of celestial bodies at that moment based on a specific set of rules and guidelines. A horoscope was calculated normally for the moment of an individual's birth, or at the beginning of an enterprise or event, because the alignments of the heavens at that moment were thought to determine the nature of the subject in question. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology is the most influential and widespread form of astrology in Africa, India, Europe and the Middle East. Medieval and most modern Western traditions of astrology have Hellenistic origins.

Horoscope

Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of the horoscope or astrological chart. This two-dimensional diagrammatic representation shows the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope is also divided into twelve different celestial houses which govern different areas of life. Calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the ascendant demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope. The word for the ascendant in Greek was ὡροσκόπος (hōroskopos) from which horoscope derives. In modern times, the word has come to refer to the astrological chart as a whole.

Branches

Traditions of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four branches that are each directed towards specific subjects or purposes. Often these branches use a unique set of techniques, or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from these four fundamental branches.

Natal astrology is the study of a person's natal chart to gain information about the individual and their life experience. Katarchic astrology includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place. Horary astrology is used to answer a specific question by studying the chart of the moment the question is posed to an astrologer. Mundane or world astrology is the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes, and the rise and fall of empires or religions. This includes the Astrological Ages, such as the Age of Aquarius, Age of Pisces, and so on. Each age is about 2,150 years in length, and many people use these massive ages to characterize and describe major historical ages, as well as current developments in the world.

History

Many believe that the origins of much of the astrological doctrine and method that would later develop in Asia, Europe, and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.^[20] They believe this system of celestial omens later spread, either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians and Assyrians, to other areas such as the Middle East, and Greece, where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology.^[21] Thus, Babylonian astrology migrated to Greece, initially as early as the middle of the 4th century BC, and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BC, after the Alexandrian conquests, this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of decanic astrology to create horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East, and India with varying degrees of influence.

Before the modern era

The differentiation between astronomy and astrology varied from place to place; they were strongly linked in ancient India,^[22] ancient Babylonia and medieval Europe, but separated to an extent in the Hellenistic world. The first semantic distinction between astrology and astronomy was probably given by Isidore of Seville^[23] (see astrology and astronomy).

The pattern of astronomical knowledge gained from astrological endeavors has been historically repeated across numerous cultures, from ancient India through the classical Maya civilization to medieval Europe. Given this historical contribution, astrology has been called a protoscience along with disciplines such as alchemy.

Astrology was not without criticism before the modern era; it was often challenged by Hellenistic skeptics, church authorities, and medieval Muslim astronomers, such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons.^[24] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, used empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute astrology and divination.^[25]

Many prominent thinkers, philosophers and scientists, such as Galen, Paracelsus, Girolamo Cardan, Nicolaus Copernicus, Taqi al-Din, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Carl Jung and others, practiced or significantly contributed to astrology.^[26][27]

Modern approaches

Several innovations have occurred in astrological practice in modern times.

Western

During the middle of the 20th century, Alfred Witte and, following him, Reinhold Ebertin pioneered the use of midpoints (see Midpoint (astrology)) in horoscopic analysis. From the 1930s to the 1980s, astrologers including Dane Rudhyar, Liz Greene and Stephen Arroyo pioneered the use of astrology for psychological analysis, with some following the lead of psychologists like Carl Jung. In the 1930s, Don Neroman developed and popularized in Europe a form of Locational Astrology under the name of "Astrogeography". In the 1970s, American astrologer Jim Lewis developed and popularized a different approach under the name of Astrocartography. Both methods purport to identify varying life conditions through differences in location.

Vedic (Hindu astrology)

Indian astrology uses a different zodiac than Western astrology and is a branch of Vedic science.^[28][29] In India, there is a long-established widespread belief in astrology, and it is commonly used for daily life, foremost with regard to marriages, and secondarily with regard to career and electional and karmic astrology.^[30][31] In the 1960s, H.R. Seshadri Iyer, introduced a system including the concepts of yogi and avayogi. It generated interest with research oriented astrologers in the West. From the early 1990s, Indian vedic astrologer and author, V.K. Choudhry has created and developed the Systems' Approach for Interpreting Horoscopes, a simplified system of Jyotish (predictive astrology)^[32] The system, also known as "SA", helps those who are trying to learn Jyotisha. The late K.S. Krishnamurti developed the Krishnamurti Paddhati system based on the analysis of the stars (nakshatras), by sub-dividing the stars in the ratio of the dasha of the concerned planets. The system is also known as "KP" and "sub theory". In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into Vedic astrology.^[33]

Effects on world culture

Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures. In the Middle Ages, when the educated of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below. Belief in astrology holds firm today in many parts of the world: in one poll, 31% of Americans expressed a belief in astrology and, according to another study, 39% considered it scientific.^[34][35]

Astrology has had an influence on both language and literature. For example, influenza, from medieval Latin influentia meaning influence, was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences.^[36] The word "disaster" comes from the Italian disastro, derived from the negative prefix dis- and from Latin aster "star", thus meaning "ill-starred".^[37] Adjectives "lunatic" (Luna/Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "venereal" (Venus), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after. In literature, many writers, notably Geoffrey Chaucer^[38][39][40] and William Shakespeare,^[41][42] used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivation(s). More recently, Michael Ward has proposed that C.S. Lewis imbued his Chronicles of Narnia with the characteristics and symbols of the seven heavens. Often, an understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature.

Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung,^[43] believe in astrology's descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims. In education astrology is reflected in the university education of medieval Europe, which was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the seven liberal arts. Dante Alighieri speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. In music the best known example of astrology's influence is in the orchestral suite called "The Planets" by the British composer Gustav Holst, the framework of which is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.

Astrology and science

In the Islamic world astrology was rejected during the turn of the 2nd millennium AD owing to the development of the scientific method and the work of al-Farabi, Alhacen, al-Biruni, Avicenna and Averroes, who made a semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology^[44] and helped to render astrology obsolete for Muslims. Muslim views on astrology have generally remained negative.

By the time of Francis Bacon and the scientific revolution, newly emerging scientific disciplines acquired a method of systematic empirical induction based upon experimental observations.^[45] At this point, astrology and astronomy began to diverge; astronomy became one of the central sciences, while astrology was increasingly viewed as an occult science or superstition by natural scientists. For example, Christiaan Huygens wrote in his Cosmotheoros: "And as for the Judicial Astrology, that pretends to foretel what is to come, it is such a ridiculous, and oftentimes mischievous Folly, that I do not think it fit to be so much as named."^[46] This separation accelerated through the 18th and 19th centuries.^[47]

Contemporary scientists, such as Richard Dawkins and Stephen Hawking, regard astrology as unscientific,^[48][49] and those such as Andrew Fraknoi of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific have labeled it a pseudoscience.^[50] In 1975, the American Humanist Association characterized those who have faith in astrology as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary".^[51] Astronomer Carl Sagan was unwilling to sign the statement, not because he felt astrology was valid, but because he found the statement's tone authoritarian.^[52][53] Sagan stated that he would instead have been willing to sign a statement describing and refuting the principal tenets of astrological belief, which he believed would have been more persuasive and would have produced less controversy than the circulated statement.^[54]

Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson asserted that "astrology was discredited 600 years ago with the birth of modern science. 'To teach it as though you are contributing to the fundamental knowledge of an informed electorate is astonishing in this, the 21st century'. Education should be about knowing how to think, 'And part of knowing how to think is knowing how the laws of nature shape the world around us. Without that knowledge, without that capacity to think, you can easily become a victim of people who seek to take advantage of you'".^[55][56]

Although astrology has not been considered a science for some time, it has been the subject of considerable research by astrologers since the beginning of the 20th century. In their study of 20th-century research into natal astrology, Geoffrey Dean, a former astrologer who became critical of the field, and coauthors documented this burgeoning research activity performed primarily within the astrological community.^[57]

Research

Studies have repeatedly failed to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between astrological predictions and operationally defined outcomes.^[7][58] Effect size tests of astrology-based hypotheses conclude that the mean accuracy of astrological predictions is no greater than what is expected by chance. For example, when testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical and other variables, one study of 2000 astrological "time twins" born within minutes of each other did not show a celestial influence on human characteristics.^[59] It has been suggested that other statistical research is often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology due to uncontrolled artifacts.^[60]

Experimental psychologists have suggested that several different effects can contribute to perception of astrological accuracy. One observed tendency is known as the confirmation bias, whereby people who are given a set of multiple predictions tend to remember more of the accurate predictions ("hits") than the inaccurate ones ("misses"). Consequently, people tend to recall the set of predictions as being more accurate than it actually was. A second psychological phenomenon is known as the Forer effect, which refers to a tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that are presented to them as tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. When astrological predictions turn out to correspond with some phenomena but not with others, the recollected integrity of these predictions may stem in part from confirmation bias. When predictions use vague language, their individualized appearance may be partially attributable to the Forer effect.

The French psychologist and statistician who devoted his life to the attempt to demonstrate the validity of certain fundamentals of astrology, Michel Gauquelin, wrote that he had found correlations between some planetary positions and certain human traits such as vocations.^[61] Gauquelin's most widely known concept is the Mars effect, which denotes a correlation between the planet Mars occupying certain positions in the sky more often at the birth of eminent sports champions than at the birth of ordinary people. A similar idea is explored by Richard Tarnas in his work Cosmos and Psyche, in which he examines correspondences between planetary alignments and historically significant events and individuals. Since its original publication in 1955, the Mars effect has been the subject of critical studies and skeptical publications which aim to refute it,^[62][63][64] and of studies in fringe journals used to support or expand the original ideas.^[65][66] Gauquelin's research has not received mainstream scientific notice.

Obstacles to research

Astrologers have argued that there are significant obstacles in carrying out scientific research into astrology today, including lack of funding,^[67][68] lack of background in science and statistics by astrologers,^[69] and insufficient expertise in astrology by research scientists and skeptics.^[67][68][70] Some astrologers have argued that few practitioners today pursue scientific testing of astrology because they feel that working with clients on a daily basis provides personal validation for their clients.^[68][71]

Another argument made by astrologers is that most studies of astrology do not reflect the nature of astrological practice and that the scientific method does not apply to astrology.^[72][73] Some astrology proponents argue that the prevailing attitudes and motives of many opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of hypotheses to be tested, the conduct of the tests, and the reporting of results.^{[7][26][51][70][74]}

Mechanism

Astrologers have not presented consistent explanations of physical mechanisms underlying astrological beliefs,^[75][76] and few modern astrologers believe in a direct causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events.^[68] An editorial published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific reports no evidence for a scientifically defined mechanism by which celestial objects can influence terrestrial affairs.^[7] Researchers have posited acausal, purely correlative, relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity proposed by Carl Jung.^[77] Others have posited a basis in divination.^[78] Others have argued that empirical correlations stand on their own epistemologically, and do not need the support of any theory or mechanism.^[70] To some observers, these non-mechanistic concepts raise serious questions about the feasibility of validating astrology through scientific testing, and some have gone so far as to reject the applicability of the scientific method to astrology entirely.^[70] Some astrologers, on the other hand, believe that astrology is amenable to the scientific method, given sufficiently sophisticated analytical methods, and they cite pilot studies to support this view.^[79] Consequently, several astrologers have called for or advocated continuing studies of astrology based on statistical validation.^[80]

See also

• Astrological organizations
• Astrological symbols
• Astrology and astronomy
• Astrology and computers
• Credulity
• Da Liu Ren
• List of astrologers
• List of astrological traditions, types, and systems
• Planets in astrology
• Pseudoscience
• Qi Men Dun Jia
• Season of birth
• Superstition

References

1. ^ Pingree, David (1973). "Astrology". in Philip P. Wiener. The Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 1. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0684132931. http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-20. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
2. ^ Reinhold Ebertin (1994). Combination of Stellar Influences. Tempe, Ariz.: American Federation of Astrologers. ISBN 978-0866900874.
3. ^ Michael Star. "Astrology FAQ, Basics for Beginners and Students of Astrology". http://home.istar.ca/~starman/astrofaq.shtml. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
4. ^ Alan Oken. Alan Oken's As Above So Below. ISBN 978-0553027761.
5. ^ "Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Meriam-Webster. http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrology. Retrieved 2006-07-19.
6. ^ ""astrology" Encyclopædia Britannica". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2006. http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356010/astrology. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} "Activities With Astrology". Astronomical society of the Pacific. http://www.astrosociety.org/education/astro/act3/astrology3.html#defense.
8. ^ "Objections to Astrology and the Strange Case of Astrology". http://fisa.altervista.org/list_of_186.html.
9. ^ "The case for and against astrology: end of a shouting match." Retrieved 2009-9-12.
10. ^ Jennifer Viegas. "Scientists dump cold water on astrology." Retrieved 2009-9-12.
11. ^ National Science Board (2006). "Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". Science and Engineering Indicators 2006. National Science Foundation. "Belief in Pseudoscience" (see also Footnote 29). http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3. Retrieved 19 April 2010.

    "...[A]bout three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items...[29]"

    "[29] Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a "spirit-being" to temporarily assume control of a body."

12. ^ ^{a b} David Frawley. "The Vedic Literature of Ancient India and Its Many Secrets". http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/FrawleyD1.php?p=1. Retrieved April 13, 2009. ^{[unreliable source?]}
13. ^ Astrology. Online Etymology Dictionary. 2001. Retrieved 24 Nov. 2009.
14. ^ Adam Mosley. "Tycho Brahe and Astrology". http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/tychoastrol.html. Retrieved 2007-06-19.
15. ^ About.com: Is Astrology a Pseudoscience? Examining the Basis and Nature of Astrology
16. ^ Ephemeris, ZodiacNet, LexiconSite (Language: Danish)
17. ^ Weor, Samael Aun Astrotheurgy, The Esoteric Treatise of Hermetic Astrology, pp. 60–117, Glorian Publishing 2006, ISBN 978-1-934206-06-5
18. ^ Weor, Samael Aun Astrotheurgy, The Zodiacal Course, pp.3–58, Glorian Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1-934206-06-5
19. ^ David Pingree – From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner, Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997. p. 26.
20. ^ Namar Beli (Bel's Illumination), considered by some - who do not acknowledge the antiquity of Vedic documents - to be the oldest astrological document in the world
21. ^ Alexandra David-Neel Magic and Mystery in Tibet, p. 290, Dover Publications Inc., 1971 ISBN 0-486-22682-4; 1st French ed. 1929
22. ^ "Ancient India's Contribution to Astronomy". http://mathemajik.googlepages.com/astronomy.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
23. ^ S. Pines (September 1964), "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", Isis 55 (3): 343–349
24. ^ Saliba, George (1994b). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York University Press. pp. 60, 67–69. ISBN 0814780237.
25. ^ Livingston, John W. (1971). "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation". Journal of the American Oriental Society 91 (1): 96–103. doi:10.2307/600445. http://jstor.org/stable/600445.
26. ^ ^{a b} Eysenck, H.J., Nias, D.K.B., Astrology: Science or Superstition? (Penguin Books, 1982)
27. ^ Bruce Scofield. "Were They Astrologers? — Big League Scientists and Astrology". The Mountain Astrologer magazine. http://www.mountainastrologer.com/standards/editor's%20choice/articles/science_ast.html. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
28. ^ "In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences." David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times". Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008
29. ^ Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? Indian Journal of Medical Ethics Oct-Dec2001-9(4) [1]
30. ^ Kaufman, Michael T. (1998-12-23). "BV Raman Dies". New York Times, December 23, 1998. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/23/world/bangalore-venkata-raman-indian-astrologer-dies-at-86.html. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
31. ^ Dipankar Das, May 1996. "Fame and Fortune". http://www.lifepositive.com/mind/predictive-sciences/astrology.asp. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
32. ^ V.K. Choudhry and K. Rajesh Chaudhary, 2006, Systems' Approach (astrology) Systems' Approach for Interpreting Horoscopes, Fourth Revised Edition, Sagar Publications, New Delhi, India. ISBN 81-7082-017-0
33. ^ Indian Astrology vs Indian Science
34. ^ Humphrey Taylor. "The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003". http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
35. ^ "Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". National Science Foundation. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
36. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=influenza Online Etymology Dictionary
37. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary: Disaster". http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=disaster. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
38. ^ A. Kitson. "Astrology and English literature". Contemporary Review, October 1996. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_n1569_v269/ai_18920172. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
39. ^ M. Allen, J.H. Fisher. "Essential Chaucer: Science, including astrology". University of Texas, San Antonio. http://colfa.utsa.edu/chaucer/ec22.html. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
40. ^ A.B.P. Mattar et al.. "Astronomy and Astrology in the Works of Chaucer". University of Singapore. http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/gem-projects/hm/astronomy_and_astrology_in_the_works_of_chaucer.pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
41. ^ P. Brown. "Shakespeare, Astrology, and Alchemy: A Critical and Historical Perspective". The Mountain Astrologer, February/March 2004. http://www.astrofuturetrends.com/id19.html.
42. ^ F. Piechoski. "Shakespeare's Astrology". http://starcats.com/anima/shakespeare.html.
43. ^ Carl G. Jung, "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious," excerpted in The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung (Modern Library, repr. 1993), 362–363.
44. ^ S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", Isis 55 (3): 343–349.
45. ^ Hooker, Richard. "The scientific revolution". http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ENLIGHT/SCIREV.HTM.
46. ^ Huygens, Christiaan, Cosmotheoros p. 68 of the English translation
47. ^ Jim Tester, A History of Western Astrology (Ballantine Books, 1989), 240ff.
48. ^ Richard Dawkins. "The Real Romance in the Stars". The Independent, December 1995. http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.shtml.
49. ^ "British Physicist Debunks Astrology in Indian Lecture". Associated Press. http://www.beliefnet.com/story/63/story_6346_1.html.
50. ^ "Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List". Astronomical Society of the Pacific. http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html.
51. ^ ^{a b} "Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists". The Humanist, September/October 1975. http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html.
52. ^ Sagan, Carl. "Letter." The Humanist 36 (1976): 2
53. ^ Mariapaula Karadimas. "Astrology: What it is and what it isn't". The Peak Publications Society. http://www.peak.sfu.ca/the-peak/2006-1/issue7/fe-astro.html.
54. ^ Sagan, Carl. The Demon Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1996), 303.
55. ^ http://www.ntskeptics.org/news/news2001-09-02.htm
56. ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20010827/aponline135357_000.htm
57. ^ G. Dean et al., Recent Advances in Natal Astrology: A Critical Review 1900-1976. The Astrological Association (England 1977)
58. ^ Shawn Carlson A Double-blind Test of Astrology Nature, 318, 419 1985
59. ^ Dean and Kelly. "Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?". http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf.
60. ^ Dean, Geoffery. "Artifacts in data often wrongly seen as evidence for astrology". http://www.rudolfhsmit.nl/d-arti2.htm.
61. ^ Gauquelin M., Cosmic Influences on Human Behavior, Aurora Press, Santa Fe NM (1994)
62. ^ Benski, C. et al. 1996. The "Mars Effect": A French Test of Over 1000 Sports Champions.
63. ^ Zelen, M., P. Kurtz, and G. Abell. 1977. Is there a Mars effect? The Humanist 37 (6): 36–39.
64. ^ Herbert Neisler in Skeptical — a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN 0731657942, p. 3
65. ^ Suitbert Ertel. "Raising the Hurdle for the Athletes' Mars Effect: Association Co-Varies With Eminence". Journal of Scientific Exploration. http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v2n1a4.php.
66. ^ Ken Irving. "Discussion of Mars eminence effect". Planetos. http://www.planetos.info/mmf.html.
67. ^ ^{a b} H.J. Eysenck & D.K.B. Nias, Astrology: Science or Superstition? Penguin Books (1982) ISBN 0-14-022397-5
68. ^ ^{a b c d} G. Phillipson, Astrology in the Year Zero. Flare Publications (London, 2000) ISBN 0-9530261-9-1
69. ^ "School History". The Avalon School of Astrology. http://www.avalonastrology.com/History.htm.
70. ^ ^{a b c d} M. Harding. "Prejudice in Astrological Research". Correlation, Vol 19(1). http://www.astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm.
71. ^ K. Irving. "Science, Astrology and the Gauquelin Planetary Effects". http://www.planetos.info/sciast1.html.
72. ^ M. Urban-Lurain, Introduction to Multivariate Analysis, Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3
73. ^ G. Perry, How do we Know What we Think we Know? From Paradigm to Method in Astrological Research, Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3
74. ^ Bob Marks. "Astrology for Skeptics". http://www.bobmarksastrologer.com/skeptics.htm.
75. ^ Dr. P. Seymour, Astrology: The evidence of Science. Penguin Group (London, 1988) ISBN 0-14-019226-3
76. ^ Frank McGillion. "The Pineal Gland and the Ancient Art of Iatromathematica". http://www.astrology-research.net/researchlibrary/Iatr/pineal.htm.
77. ^ Maggie Hyde, Jung and Astrology. The Aquarian Press (London, 1992) p. 24–26.
78. ^ Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology. Utsav Arora, another meditation research specialist and astrologer, argues, "if 100% accuracy were to be the benchmark, we should be closing down and shutting all hospitals, medical labs. Scientific medical equipment and drugs have a long history of errors and miscalculations. Same is the case with computers and electronic. We don't refute electronic gadgets and equipment just because it fails but we work towards finding cures for the errors." The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.)
79. ^ D. Cochrane, Towards a Proof of Astrology: An AstroSignature for Mathematical Ability International Astrologer ISAR Journal Winter-Spring 2005, Vol 33, #2
80. ^ M. Pottenger (ed.), Astrological Research Methods, Volume 1: An ISAR Anthology. International Society for Astrological Research (Los Angeles 1995) ISBN 0-9646366-0-3

Further reading

• Roger Beck, A Brief History of Ancient Astrology, Blackwell (2007)
• Nicholas Campion, A History of Western Astrology Vol. 1, The Ancient World, Continuum, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84725-214-2 (first published as The Dawn of Astrology: a Cultural History of Western Astrology Volume 1, Continuum,2008).
• Nicholas Campion, A History of Western Astrology Vol. 2, The Medieval and Modern Worlds, Continuum 2009. ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1.

External links

• Astrology at the Open Directory Project
• Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

Categories: Astrology | Hermeticism | Mysticism | Popular psychology | Superstitions | Symbolism | Pseudoscience

See Also:

What Links Here:

Recently Viewed Pages:

• Achamán: Images
• Modern Philosophy: Blogs
• Society: Issues: Violence and Abuse: Family Violence: Personal Stories: Directory
• Home
• Sitemap.xml
• Sitemap
• Evil: News
• Evil: Encyclopedia
• Evil: Images
• Society: Issues: End-of-Life: Directory

Most Popular Pages:

• Modern Philosophy: Blogs
• Aceh: Blogs
• Achamán: Images
• Holotes: Videos
• Malevolent: Dictionary
• Jordan: Images
• Wikisaurus:evil: Dictionary
• Flat Tax: Blogs
• Computer Ethics: News
• Astrology: Web Search

Related 'Astrology' Searches: